Week 7

For this week, our focus was primarily on the midterm and SenseCam. When I was going through the assigned reading for the week, I was instantly able to connect it with E-Memory because that reading also touched upon SenseCams and their uses. However, I felt this reading was better it tried to empirically validate the findings. When the concept of SenseCam was introduced earlier in the course, I was only exposed to the possible positive aspects of it but this reading also discussed about some of the misconceptions people might have regarding such technologies. For instance, I used to believe that SenseCam does help people recalling past incidents and event is totality but this is no quite true. We do tend to forget about events, situations etc after sometime. If I am to apply this to my own experiences, I find this to be quite correct. For example, at times when I go through my own photos, it takes me some time to recall the event at which that particular photo was taken, and even if I recall that incident, I am unable to recall the event in totality.

Week 4 - Cognitive Architecture

• Just like last week, this week we focused on understanding cognitive architecture. To summarize the discussion, cognitive architecture is a theory and we can claim that a system has cognitive architecture if it can behave like a human mind.

• The article considers learning to be on a continuum with novice learners being on the left side of the spectrum and experts on the right side.

• When we presented with a new set of information, it first goes in our working memory which is short term and has relatively smaller storage capacity. Adding more information in the working memory causes cognitive overload which results in low level learning/understanding of the concepts.

• In order to truly understand how ‘learning’ and ‘understanding’ takes place and how a learner can shift from the left side of the continuum to the right side, we need to look at the level of interactivity. Whenever we are introduced with a new set of information, if it has high interactive elements then the working memory will not be able to process it properly. The ideal situation would be to look at the information in isolated and non-interactive manner first.

• Schemas were also discussed at length because it is due to schemas the cognitive load on the working memory is decreased. If there are proper schemas built then the mind can process information rapidly in the working memory even if the information has high interactive elements.

• Transfer of knowledge is also very important because if a learner is able to efficiently transfer his learning in different settings, then it shows that there are central executives formed in his/her long term memory.

• If the information is new, then there will be fewer schemas available in the memory due to which a learner might find it difficult to understand the concept.

• Expertise is dependent upon automation, which implies that a learner can process information without causing cognitive overload in the working memory.

Session 5

This week we learnt about cognitive architecture. Understanding Cognitive architecture (CA) is imperative because it can lead to designing an artificial intelligent system that can replicate human capabilities. CA is more about the underlying infrastructure of an intelligent system. It is not concerned with what is stored in the memory because the content in the memory can change over time and CA deals with those aspects that are constant overtime. CA varies from expert systems as the latter have finite information based on which the possible outcomes are also finite.

There are a few examples of how CA is utilized to construct machines that cognitive abilities. One of them is ACT-R which tries to model human behavior. It has set modules (sensory, motor, intentional and declarative) which process different type of information. In order to understand better how ACT-R works, please follow this link as it shows how a small robot tries to find its way out of a maze (ACT-R Robot). Soar is another example. It is slightly more advanced than ACT-R because it has episodic and semantic memories. It is more goal oriented and in order to achieve it, it dynamically selects the best possible method/way/technique from the information it already has to get to the end result. If it does not have prior information about certain goals then it tries to collect that information first. To truly understand how a Soar system functions, please follow this link as it depicts an example of a train track and train engine (Soar Explained). The other examples of CA would be ICARUS and PRODIGY.

CAs have capabilities such as recognizing, categorizing, decision making, situation assessment, prediction, planning etc which enables them to function dynamically. In addition, the properties of CA include representation, organization, utilization and refinement of knowledge. When evaluating CA aspects such as its generality, taskability, efficacy, reactivity, improvability and autonomy are taken into consideration. The most important take away from this is to understand that CA does not follow “all or none” approach implying that there is possibility that an intelligent agent might not have CA related capabilities. Similarly, if it does not have all the capabilities then it cannot be expected to have all the properties CA has to offer and cannot be assessed or evaluated against all the evaluation criteria mentioned above. Systems based on CA are dynamic and hence will differ in properties.

Session 4

Persuasive Technology basically focuses on how technology can be used and consciously designed to persuade users towards a particular course of action. One of its examples can be how websites have ranking systems based on the data they have collected on a particular product from previous buyers. Also, applications that help you track your daily food intake are also considered as a part of persuasive technology.

Autism is a developmental disorder and the people effected by it are assessed on spectrum aka Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Some of them are highly functional rendering them physically and mentally capable to executing day to day tasks. Autistic people have a world of their own.

In order to persuade a child within a classroom, a teacher has to have credibility and reliability. Also, the attractiveness of a message source can also contribute towards behavioral change. For example, if a teacher shares her personal experiences then she will be able to come across as more reliable for the students. Credibility is further divided into two factors namely expertise and trustworthiness.

Fogg’s seven principles that can be used in bringing about a behavioral change are reinforcement, reduction, self monitoring, suggestion, surveillance, tailoring and tunneling. Fogg also built upon the concept of Kairos and proposed that messages will be more persuasive if they are delivered at the right time at the right place.

In order to ensure long lasting learning, teachers should practice scaffolding. In scaffolding, the teacher does not directly provide a student with answers, instead, he/she helps a student in getting to the answer through clues and guidance.  

Session 3

The biggest learning for me for this session was knowing about the concept of extended memory. Anything that helps us store information that we can retrieve later can be considered as extended memory. For example, writing something on a piece of paper can also be counted as extended memory.

Your brain can process information rapidly when you are able to link new information with previous information. This also helps you in indulging the process of thinking, which in turn stores information in the long term memory.

It is also important to understand the purpose of learning because it helps you in identifying how you are going to achieve your goal.

The concept of cognition is not limited to thinking. In fact, everything we do can also be considered as cognition – such as our actions, reactions etc.

Procedural Memory (Unconscious Memory/Implicit) - Actions we do automatically such as driving, swimming etc. Declarative Memory (Conscious/Explicit): It is comprised of episodic memory which is based on life experiences and semantic memory which is based on factual information. If you are able to connect these two i.e. episodic and factual then you will be able to produce lifelong learning experiences.

Session 2

The focus for this week was on tools, what they are and how they can be used. Both animals and humans use tools. Animals can modify the available things in their surroundings and fix them to use them as tools. Anything and everything can be used as a tool. Animals adapt to their environment and use it as tool too. For example, crows throwing nuts on main road to help them crack them open with passing cars. Chimpanzees using sticks to fetch honey. They pick up sticks, remove leaves, the size of the stick is as such that it can be sued properly. Once they are used, animals discard them. Choice and design of tool is very important and it depends on the purpose. Our interaction in a way with tools is on 6 levels, environmental, morphological, motor, perceptual, physio-motor and cultural.

·         The main focus of chapter 8 was to break down the practice of using tools.

o   Actions not gone as planned - errors

o   Ability to perform the action is missing - physical or mental inability to perform a task

·        Human error theorists talks about humans forming a part of a system and one person’s failure represents failure of the entire system. Similarly, tool usage can also be considered as a system of its own. Example of screw driver – 1. Environmental level (mode - poor access to screw driver, cause - door obscures access, consequence - constrained posture) 2. Morphological (mode – poor grasp of screw driver, cause poor grip arising from slippery handle, consequence – low torque)

·        A simple task can fail in variety of ways and failures are interconnected as well. Example, choosing knife instead of a screw driver – you can fail because of wrong selection, poor grip of hand and of the tool on the screw etc.

·       Cognitive psychologists prefer the term “slips” instead of “errors”. The study of slip suggests that human actions are hierarchical in nature. Example when writing any letter, define the word, then its shape, then the movement required and then the actual movement.

·        Two types of slippage, first is related to selection of the tool (discussed above) and second is between handle and hand. This could be physical inability to grab the handle or slippery handle.

·       Errors can lead to delay in work/frustration and injuries.

·       Most of the injuries during work happen due to sharp tools or tools that require use of a lot force.

·         Injuries and accidents from tools happen due to morphological and motor engagement. Meaning that people might use wrong tools for the task or wrong posture/grip to use the tool resulting in injuries.

·         Overexertion also leads to injuries. For example, holding a hammer for too long can give you trigger fingers. This can be reduced by using proper grips on the tools to reduce the vibration.

·         In short, there are three types of sources of failure – grip, posture and tool.

·         Not only physical constrains such as inability to use a tool can lead to errors but environmental factors also come into play. For example, if the environment is as such that you have to wear gloves then your ability to use a tool will also change.

·         Then the chapter discusses about neurological deficits and ways in which the representation of tool use in brain can become impaired. In doing so, the author talks about Apraxia: patients of this lose the ability to perform the sort of skilled actions that we take for granted in our everyday lives.  

·       Ideomotor Apraxia: Patients can identify objects and their use but cannot act it out. Example of this is making a cutting gesture from a knife. Patients with some damage in left hemisphere of their brain perhaps due to stroke, tumor or Alzheimer face this. Case Study – 72 errors out of 160 elicitation but all 72 errors were not completely wrong. For example, when asked about what you do with apple, they showed chewing only and not picking up an apple or biting it, just chewing. When asked about gun, they just reloaded it, did not point it at anyone which is quite stereotypical.

·         Ideational Apraxia: It arises due to not knowing which object to use i.e. errors in associating tools with actions. These people cannot act out a task but when confronted with a task can easily perform it. Also, they have an issue with sequencing and orders. Showing them photos and asking them assemble them might be a challenging task for them.

·         Neglect: Neglect patients do not have impairments; they are simply unable to attend to one side of their body by either ignoring the objects on that side or being unable to move within the space on that side. For example crossing Xs and 0s.

Session 1

Name: Humayun Ansari

Education: Graduated from Lahore University of Management Sciences in 2014 with a degree in Political Science and Economics.

Professional Experience: After graduation I worked with a civil society organization called Society for International Education and led a project in Lyari to train students in photo journalism. Then, I moved on to an A level school where I worked in various departments giving me a holistic experience of working in a school.

Interests: I like to work with older students who are in college and about to start their university education. I feel that it is the most crucial time for any student because if they are not guided properly then they will be unable to make right informed choices for themselves.

Hobbies: I like to bake, cook, read fiction novels at times and spend time with my cat.

Today’s Class: During today’s lecture, I learnt there is no one right way to exactly pin point how learning takes place. We discussed about behaviorist and cognitive theorists and their perspectives on how our minds function. I also learnt that our brain is divided into further sections with each section performing its own function to the extent that even certain emotions are depends on certain parts of the brain. Besides this, we also learnt that memory can be either short term or long term depending on how we have interacted with the information. Moreover, brain is something that takes information, processes/stores it and produces output just like computer, but it is not enough to equate the two.